![]() ![]() Although several of these studies give detailed descriptions of how the skulls were modified, none clearly identify the sequence of manipulations involved in the manufacture of skull-cups. Human remains from Isturitz (Gironde, France) are dominated by cranial elements, most of which have been cut-marked and some modified by percussion to make skull-cups. All show signs of defleshing, breakage by percussion, and careful ‘retouching’ of the broken borders –. ![]() Nine cranial remains from the site of Le Placard Cave (Charente, France) have been interpreted as skull-cups. So far, the earliest known evidence for skull-cup preparation is from the Upper Palaeolithic Magdalenian culture (∼15–12,000 yr BP, 17) in Europe. Evidence from the Neolithic site of Herxhein in Germany – suggests that human cranial bones were systematically modified to produce skull-cups. Bronze Age modified cranial vaults from El Mirador Cave (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain) are also consistent with skull-cups, although the authors excluded any symbolic behavior associated with the processing and consumption of the bodies. ![]() At Grotte du Pradel, a human cranial vault was found on the contemporary ground surface, surrounded by five burials. Earlier skull-cups have been described from Bronze Age sites in Europe. Among the human remains excavated at the site of Nawinpukio in Peru (400–700 AD), one skull exhibits modifications, such as percussion marks, cut-marks and a polished border, which are consistent with its use as a bowl. ĭespite this widespread geographical and temporal occurrence, archaeological evidence of skull-cup preparation is rare. ![]() Skull-cups have been reported as being used by Australian aborigines –, and in the nineteenth century human skulls were used as drinking cups in Fiji and other islands in Oceania. Laufer documented Historic evidence of the use of human calvariae as drinking bowls in India, where the ritual seems to be still practiced by the Aghori sub-sect (8 ). Human skull-bowls, known as kapala in Sanskrit, were fashioned from the oval upper section of a human cranium and used as a libation vessel for a number of Vajrayana deities in tantric Buddhist rituals. Similar traditions were described for China in The Record of Great Historian by Sima Qian (1 st–2 nd centuries BC) and for Viking tribes by Mágnus Ólafsson in the Krakumal written in 1636. Herodotus in The Histories (5 th century BC) portrayed the Scythians as people who drank from the skulls of their enemies. The use of skull vaults as drinking cups is known from recent ethnographic studies as well as historical accounts. In these examples, skinning of the skull and removal of brain and facial tissues has been attributed to cannibalism, trophy display or secondary burial. Although examples of post-cranial modification are known, the majority of modified human remains are cranial elements. The act of collecting and modifying human body parts after the death of an individual for trophy or ritual use is well documented –. ![]()
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